Lesson 1
The Alphabet and Pronunciation
Twenty-four letters, vowels, diphthongs, syllables, breathing marks, accents, and punctuation.
The letters
Greek uses twenty-four letters. Most will look familiar from math or science class (α, β, γ, π, Σ), but a few are easy to confuse with English letters that look the same yet sound different: Greek ν is 'n', ρ is 'r', χ is a guttural 'ch' as in Scottish 'loch', and ω is a long 'o'.
The chart below shows all twenty-four letters in order, with their names and a simple English pronunciation guide. Read down each column: capital, small letter, name, sound.
Sigma has two forms: σ everywhere except at the very end of a word, where it becomes ς. So λόγος ('word') ends in ς, but the plural λόγοι uses σ in the middle. You never choose between them — the position in the word decides for you.
Double consonants: γγ, γκ, γχ, and γξ are pronounced with an 'n' sound before the second letter, so ἄγγελος sounds like 'an-gel-os' — which is exactly where English 'angel' comes from.
| Capital | Small | Name | Sounds like |
|---|---|---|---|
| Α | α | alpha | a as in 'father' |
| Β | β | beta | b as in 'book' |
| Γ | γ | gamma | g as in 'go' (n before γ, κ, χ, ξ) |
| Δ | δ | delta | d as in 'door' |
| Ε | ε | epsilon | e as in 'pet' |
| Ζ | ζ | zeta | z as in 'zeal', dz as in 'adze' |
| Η | η | eta | ē as in 'they' |
| Θ | θ | theta | th as in 'think' |
| Ι | ι | iota | i as in 'sit' or 'machine' |
| Κ | κ | kappa | k as in 'kite' |
| Λ | λ | lambda | l as in 'lamp' |
| Μ | μ | mu | m as in 'moon' |
| Ν | ν | nu | n as in 'net' |
| Ξ | ξ | xi | x as in 'box' |
| Ο | ο | omicron | o as in 'not' |
| Π | π | pi | p as in 'pen' |
| Ρ | ρ | rho | r as in 'run' |
| Σ | σ/ς | sigma | s as in 'sun' (ς at word end) |
| Τ | τ | tau | t as in 'top' |
| Υ | υ | upsilon | u like French 'tu' (or 'oo') |
| Φ | φ | phi | ph as in 'phone' |
| Χ | χ | chi | ch as in Scottish 'loch' |
| Ψ | ψ | psi | ps as in 'lapse' |
| Ω | ω | omega | ō as in 'note' |
- ἄγγελος — angel, messenger (γγ = 'ng')
- λόγος — word (note final ς)
- Χριστός — Christ (χ = guttural 'ch')
Vowels, diphthongs, and syllables
Greek has seven vowels. Two are always short (ε, ο), two are always long (η, ω), and three can be either (α, ι, υ). Long and short originally described how long a vowel was held: a long vowel lasted roughly twice as long as a short one. This is different from the English use of 'long' and 'short' for the sounds in 'cape' and 'cap'.
Keep ε distinct from η and ο distinct from ω when learning spellings. These pairs can differ in sound quality as well as historical length, and changing the vowel can change the grammar: λύομεν means 'we loose', while λύωμεν means 'let us loose'. You will learn these verb forms later; for now, notice that one vowel letter can change the meaning. Vowel length also helps explain Greek accent patterns, even though many length distinctions had disappeared in speech during the Koine period.
When two vowels merge into one sound, the result is a diphthong. The common ones are: αι (as in 'aisle'), ει (as in 'eight'), οι (as in 'oil'), αυ ('ow' as in 'cow' or 'av'), ευ ('eu' or 'ev'), ου (as in 'soup'), and υι (like 'we').
A syllable is one beat in a word. Each syllable has one vowel or one diphthong at its center, so a diphthong counts as one beat even though it uses two letters. For example, λόγος has two syllables (λό-γος), αἰών has two (αἰ-ών), and οὐρανός has three (οὐ-ρα-νός). A single consonant between vowels normally goes with the following vowel, as these examples show. The hyphens here are reading aids, not part of the Greek spelling.
Two adjacent vowels do not always form a diphthong. A diaeresis (two dots above a vowel) tells you to pronounce that vowel separately from the one before it: Μωϋσῆς ('Moses') has three syllables, Μω-ϋ-σῆς. The iota subscript described below is silent and does not add a syllable.
Sometimes a small iota is written beneath a long vowel: ᾳ, ῃ, ῳ. This is called iota subscript. It is a leftover from an older pronunciation and is silent today, but you must recognize it because it often marks the dative case.
- λόγῳ — to/for a word (iota subscript marks dative)
- αἰών — age (αἰ-ών: two syllables; αι stays together)
- οὐρανός — heaven (οὐ-ρα-νός: three syllables; ου = 'oo')
- Μωϋσῆς — Moses (Μω-ϋ-σῆς: the diaeresis marks separate vowels)
Breathings and accents
In printed Greek texts with breathing marks, a word beginning with a vowel or the letter ρ has a breathing mark. A smooth breathing (ἀ) means no extra sound. In the pronunciation guide used here, a rough breathing (ἁ) adds an 'h' sound before a vowel, so ἡμέρα is pronounced 'hēmera'.
When υ or ρ is the first letter of a word, it takes a rough breathing: ὕδωρ ('water') and ῥῆμα ('word, saying'). The spelling ῥ is often represented as 'rh' in English; you can pronounce it as 'r' for now. With an initial diphthong, the breathing mark is written over the second vowel but applies to the whole diphthong: αἱ begins with an 'h' sound, while αἰ does not. A υ that is the second letter of a diphthong does not force a rough breathing: οὐ ('not') has a smooth breathing.
There are three accent marks: acute (ά), grave (ὰ), and circumflex (ᾶ). They originally represented differences in pitch; for reading aloud in this course, stress the syllable with the accent mark. As you learn each word, learn where its accent is written and practise saying that syllable with stress. For example, say λό-γος with stress on λό, and ἀρ-χή with stress on χή. The optional accent notes below explain how to recognize these marks; later lessons add guidance for writing them.
- ἀρχή — beginning (smooth breathing, no h-sound)
- ἡμέρα — day (rough breathing, h-sound)
- ὕδωρ — water (initial υ with rough breathing)
- ῥῆμα — word, saying (initial ρ with rough breathing)
Punctuation
In printed Greek texts, the comma (,) and full stop (.) work much as they do in English: a comma marks a smaller break, and a full stop ends a sentence.
The raised dot (·) marks a stronger break within a sentence, much like an English colon or semicolon. It sits above the line rather than on it.
The Greek question mark (;) looks like an English semicolon. When you see it, read the sentence as a question: τί; means 'what?'
- τί; — what? (the ; marks a question)
- · — raised dot: a break like an English colon or semicolon
Where an accent can goOptional reference
For now, read the accents supplied with each word. These notes explain patterns you will notice as endings change; you do not need to place every accent from memory.
Count syllables from the end. An acute (ά) can appear on any of the last three syllables; a circumflex (ᾶ) only on one of the last two, over a long vowel or diphthong. If the final vowel or diphthong is long, an acute cannot stand three syllables from the end, and a circumflex cannot stand on the next-to-last syllable. When that next-to-last syllable is accented and its vowel is long, it takes a circumflex before a short final vowel, but an acute before a long one.
For accent placement, final -αι and -οι usually count as short, even though they are diphthongs. The noun ending -οι therefore allows ἄνθρωποι to keep its accent three syllables from the end. A few later forms are exceptions; their lessons will supply the accents.
A final acute normally becomes a grave (ὰ) when another word follows without a punctuation break: θεός becomes θεὸς in θεὸς λέγει, 'God speaks'. Certain small words that lean on the word before them make an exception; later notes explain these.
- ἄνθρωπος → ἀνθρώπου — the long final ου moves the accent one syllable closer to the end
- δῶρον → δώρου — the long final ου changes the circumflex to an acute
Exercises
Lesson review (8)
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