Comparison, Adverbs, and Contrary-to-Fact Conditions

Comparative and superlative adjectives

A comparative means 'more ...' or '...-er'; a superlative means 'most ...' or '...-est'. A regular family has endings -τερος, -τέρα, -τερον and -τατος, -τάτη, -τατον. Other common comparatives use -ων, -ον, with third-declension endings: μείζων, μεῖζον, 'greater'.

The object of comparison can follow ἤ, 'than', or stand in the genitive: μείζων τοῦ μαθητοῦ, 'greater than the disciple'. That genitive is comparison, not possession. With ἤ, the second item commonly takes the case expected from its role in the comparison.

Biblical Greek sometimes uses a comparative for an intensified quality or where English prefers a superlative. Irregular families include ἀγαθός with κρείσσων/κρείττων or βελτίων, and πολύς with πλείων. Learn the real form rather than making every comparative by adding -τερος.

• ὁ κύριος μείζων τοῦ δούλου ἐστίν. — The master is greater than the servant.
• μείζονα ἔργα — greater works

Adverbs describe the action

An adjective describes a noun and agrees with it. An adverb describes a verb, adjective, or whole clause and does not decline. Many adverbs end in -ως: καλῶς, 'well'; δικαίως, 'justly'. A useful formation guide is the adjective's genitive plural with final ν replaced by ς.

Adverbs also have comparisons. A neuter accusative singular comparative may function adverbially, and a neuter plural superlative may do so: μᾶλλον, 'more / rather', and μάλιστα, 'most / especially', are very frequent examples.

Not every adverb ends in -ως. ἐγγύς ('near'), εὐθύς ('immediately'), and ἔξω ('outside') must simply be learned. An adverbial accusative such as πολύ can mean 'much / greatly' without describing a neuter noun.

• ὁ μαθητὴς καλῶς γράφει. — The disciple writes well.
• μᾶλλον ἀγαπῶ τὸν λόγον. — I love the message more.

Questions can suggest an answer

A yes/no question with οὐ commonly anticipates agreement: οὐκ ἀκούεις; 'You are listening, aren't you?' A question with μή commonly anticipates a negative reply: μὴ ἀκούεις; 'You aren't listening, are you?' These are rhetorical expectations, not guarantees of the answer.

Interrogative τίς asks for information rather than yes or no. Other question words include ποῦ ('where?'), πότε ('when?'), and πῶς ('how?'). Keep the Greek punctuation and the author's argument in view when deciding whether a question is genuine or rhetorical.

Do not add an English negative tag mechanically when it sounds unnatural. Preserve the question's force in context; the particles tell you something about the speaker's expectation, not a separate event or fact.

• οὐχ ὁ θεὸς ἀγαθός ἐστιν; — Isn't God good? (agreement expected)
• ποῦ ἐστιν ὁ μαθητής; — Where is the disciple?

If things had been different

A contrary-to-fact condition imagines a situation not fulfilled: 'If he had listened, he would have believed'. Greek commonly uses εἰ with a past indicative in the condition and a past indicative with ἄν in the conclusion.

An imperfect can describe a present unreal situation: εἰ ἦν ὧδε, ἔλεγεν ἄν, 'If he were here, he would speak'. An aorist commonly describes a past unreal event: εἰ ἤκουσεν, ἐπίστευσεν ἄν, 'If he had listened, he would have believed'. Context determines the time relationship, especially in mixed conditions.

Compare the ordinary condition εἰ ἀκούεις, γινώσκεις τὸν λόγον, 'if you listen, you know the message', with prospective ἐὰν ἀκούσῃς, γνώσῃ τὸν λόγον, 'if you listen, you will know the message'. Neither claims that listening is already a fact. εἰ alone does not mean 'contrary to fact'. Look for the past forms, ἄν in the conclusion, and the surrounding situation together.

• εἰ ἦν ὧδε, ἔχαιρεν ἄν. — If he were here, he would rejoice (imperfect forms for an unreal present situation).
• εἰ ἤκουσεν τὸν λόγον, ἐπίστευσεν ἄν. — If he had heard the message, he would have believed.

Vocabulary (10)

εἰ

if

καλῶς

well

μᾶλλον

more, rather

μάλιστα

most of all, especially

ἐγγύς

near, at hand; (+genitive) near to

εὐθύς

immediately, at once

ποῦ

where? (interrogative)

πῶς

how? (interrogative)

πότε

when? (interrogative)

ἔξω

outside; (+genitive) outside of